⟦6f6686986⟧

TextFile

Info file emacs, produced by texinfo-format-buffer -*-Text-*-
from file emacs.tex

This file documents the GNU Emacs editor.

Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of
this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice
are preserved on all copies.

Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this
manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also that the
sections entitled "The GNU Manifesto", "Distribution" and "GNU Emacs
General Public License" are included exactly as in the original, and
provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the
terms of a permission notice identical to this one.

Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual
into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions,
except that the sections entitled "The GNU Manifesto", "Distribution"
and "GNU Emacs General Public License" may be included in a translation
approved by the author instead of in the original English.

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File: emacs Node: Syntax Change, Prev: Syntax Entry, Up: Syntax

Altering Syntax Information
---------------------------

It is possible to alter a character's syntax table entry by storing a new
number in the appropriate element of the syntax table, but it would be hard
to determine what number to use. Therefore, Emacs provides a command that
allows you to specify the syntactic properties of a character in a
convenient way.

`M-x modify-syntax-entry' is the command to change a character's
syntax. It can be used interactively, and is also the means used by major
modes to initialize their own syntax tables. Its first argument is the
character to change. The second argument is a string that specifies the
new syntax. When called from Lisp code, there is a third, optional
argument, which specifies the syntax table in which to make the change. If
not supplied, or if this command is called interactively, the third
argument defaults to the current buffer's syntax table.

1. The first character in the string specifies the syntactic class. It
is one of the characters in the previous table (*Note Syntax Entry::).

2. The second character is the matching delimiter. For a character that
is not an opening or closing delimiter, this should be a space, and may
be omitted if no following characters are needed.

3. The remaining characters are flags. The flag characters allowed are

`1'
Flag this character as the first of a two-character comment starting sequence.
`2'
Flag this character as the second of a two-character comment starting sequence.
`3'
Flag this character as the first of a two-character comment ending sequence.
`4'
Flag this character as the second of a two-character comment ending sequence.

A description of the contents of the current syntax table can be
displayed with `C-h s' (`describe-syntax'). The description of
each character includes both the string you would have to give to
`modify-syntax-entry' to set up that character's current syntax, and
some English to explain that string if necessary.

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File: emacs Node: Init File, Prev: Syntax, Up: Customization

The Init File, .emacs
=====================

When Emacs is started, it normally loads the file `.emacs' in your
home directory. This file, if it exists, should contain Lisp code. It is
called your "init file". The command line switches `-q' and
`-u' can be used to tell Emacs whether to load an init file
(*Note Entering Emacs::).

There can also be a "default init file", which is the library named
`default.el', found via the standard search path for libraries. The
Emacs distribution contains no such library; your site may create one for
local customizations. If this library exists, it is loaded whenever you
start Emacs. But your init file, if any, is loaded first; if it sets
`inhibit-default-init' non-`nil', then `default' is not
loaded.

If you have a large amount of code in your `.emacs' file, you
should move it into another file named `SOMETHING.el',
byte-compile it (*Note Lisp Libraries::), and make your `.emacs'
file load the other file using `load'.

* Menu:

* Init Syntax:: Syntax of constants in Emacs Lisp.
* Init Examples:: How to do some things with an init file.
* Terminal Init:: Each terminal type can have an init file.

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File: emacs Node: Init Syntax, Prev: Init File, Up: Init File, Next: Init Examples

Init File Syntax
----------------

The `.emacs' file contains one or more Lisp function call
expressions. Each of these consists of a function name followed by
arguments, all surrounded by parentheses. For example, `(setq
fill-column 60)' represents a call to the function `setq' which is
used to set the variable `fill-column' (*Note Filling::) to 60.

The second argument to `setq' is an expression for the new value of
the variable. This can be a constant, a variable, or a function call
expression. In `.emacs', constants are used most of the time. They can be:

Numbers:
Numbers are written in decimal, with an optional initial minus sign.

Strings:
Lisp string syntax is the same as C string syntax with a few extra
features. Use a double-quote character to begin and end a string constant.

Newlines and special characters may be present literally in strings. They
can also be represented as backslash sequences: `\n' for newline,
`\b' for backspace, `\r' for carriage return, `\t' for tab,
`\f' for formfeed (control-l), `\e' for escape, `\\' for a
backslash, `\"' for a double-quote, or `\OOO' for the
character whose octal code is OOO. Backslash and double-quote are
the only characters for which backslash sequences are mandatory.

`\C-' can be used as a prefix for a control character, as in `\C-s'
for ASCII Control-S, and `\M-' can be used as a prefix for a meta
character, as in `\M-a' for Meta-A or `\M-\C-a' for Control-Meta-A.

Characters:
Lisp character constant syntax consists of a `?' followed by
either a character or an escape sequence starting with `\'.
Examples: `?x', `?\n', `?\"', `?\)'. Note that
strings and characters are not interchangeable in Lisp; some contexts
require one and some contexts require the other.

True:
`t' stands for `true'.

False:
`nil' stands for `false'.

Other Lisp objects:
Write a single-quote (') followed by the Lisp object you want.

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File: emacs Node: Init Examples, Prev: Init Syntax, Up: Init File, Next: Terminal Init

Init File Examples
------------------

Here are some examples of doing certain commonly desired things with
Lisp expressions:

* Make TAB in C mode just insert a tab if point is in the middle of a
line.

(setq c-tab-always-indent nil)

Here we have a variable whose value is normally `t' for `true'
and the alternative is `nil' for `false'.

* Make searches case sensitive by default (in all buffers that do not
override this).

(setq-default case-fold-search nil)

This sets the default value, which is effective in all buffers that do
not have local values for the variable. Setting `case-fold-search'
with `setq' affects only the current buffer's local value, which
is not what you probably want to do in an init file.

* Make Text mode the default mode for new buffers.

(setq default-major-mode 'text-mode)

Note that `text-mode' is used because it is the command for entering
the mode we want. A single-quote is written before it to make a symbol
constant; otherwise, `text-mode' would be treated as a variable name.

* Turn on Auto Fill mode automatically in Text mode and related modes.

(setq text-mode-hook
'(lambda () (auto-fill-mode 1)))

Here we have a variable whose value should be a Lisp function. The
function we supply is a list starting with `lambda', and a single
quote is written in front of it to make it (for the purpose of this
`setq') a list constant rather than an expression. Lisp functions
are not explained here, but for mode hooks it is enough to know that
`(auto-fill-mode 1)' is an expression that will be executed when
Text mode is entered, and you could replace it with any other expression
that you like, or with several expressions in a row.

(setq text-mode-hook 'turn-on-auto-fill)

This is another way to accomplish the same result.
`turn-on-auto-fill' is a symbol whose function definition is
`(lambda () (auto-fill-mode 1))'.

* Load the installed Lisp library named `foo' (actually a file
`foo.elc' or `foo.el' in a standard Emacs directory).

(load "foo")

When the argument to `load' is a relative pathname, not starting
with `/' or `~', `load' searches the directories in
`load-path' (*Note Loading::).

* Load the compiled Lisp file `foo.elc' from your home directory.

(load "~/foo.elc")

Here an absolute file name is used, so no searching is done.

* Rebind the key `C-x l' to run the function `make-symbolic-link'.

(global-set-key "\C-xl" 'make-symbolic-link)

(define-key global-map "\C-xl" 'make-symbolic-link)

Note once again the single-quote used to refer to the symbol
`make-symbolic-link' instead of its value as a variable.

* Do the same thing for C mode only.

(define-key c-mode-map "\C-xl" 'make-symbolic-link)

* Redefine all keys which now run `next-line' in Fundamental mode
so that they run `forward-line' instead.

(substitute-key-definition 'next-line 'forward-line
global-map)

* Make `C-x C-v' undefined.

(global-unset-key "\C-x\C-v")

One reason to undefine a key is so that you can make it a prefix.
Simply defining `C-x C-v ANYTHING' would make `C-x C-v'
a prefix, but `C-x C-v' must be freed of any non-prefix definition
first.

* Make `$' have the syntax of punctuation in Text mode.
Note the use of a character constant for `$'.

(modify-syntax-entry ?\$ "." text-mode-syntax-table)

* Enable the use of the command `eval-expression' without confirmation.

(put 'eval-expression 'disabled nil)

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File: emacs Node: Terminal Init, Prev: Init Examples, Up: Init File

Terminal-specific Initialization
--------------------------------

Each terminal type can have a Lisp library to be loaded into Emacs when
it is run on that type of terminal. For a terminal type named TERMTYPE,
the library is called `term/TERMTYPE' and it is found by searching the
directories `load-path' as usual and trying the suffixes `.elc' and `.el'.
Normally it appears in the subdirectory `term' of the directory where most
Emacs libraries are kept.

The usual purpose of the terminal-specific library is to define the
escape sequences used by the terminal's function keys using the library
`keypad.el'. See the file
`term/vt100.el' for an example of how this is done.

When the terminal type contains a hyphen, only the part of the name
before the first hyphen is significant in choosing the library name.
Thus, terminal types `aaa-48' and `aaa-30-rv' both use
the library `term/aaa'. The code in the library can use
`(getenv "TERM")' to find the full terminal type name.

The library's name is constructed by concatenating the value of the
variable `term-file-prefix' and the terminal type. Your `.emacs'
file can prevent the loading of the terminal-specific library by setting
`term-file-prefix' to `nil'.

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File: emacs Node: Quitting, Prev: Customization, Up: Top, Next: Lossage

Quitting and Aborting
=====================

`C-g'
Quit. Cancel running or partially typed command.
`C-]'
Abort recursive editing level and cancel the command which invoked it
(`abort-recursive-edit').
`M-x top-level'
Abort all recursive editing levels that are currently executing.
`C-x u'
Cancel an already-executed command, usually (`undo').

There are two ways of cancelling commands which are not finished
executing: "quitting" with `C-g', and "aborting" with `C-]'
or `M-x top-level'. Quitting is cancelling a partially typed command
or one which is already running. Aborting is getting out of a recursive
editing level and cancelling the command that invoked the recursive edit.

Quitting with `C-g' is used for getting rid of a partially typed
command, or a numeric argument that you don't want. It also stops a
running command in the middle in a relatively safe way, so you can use it
if you accidentally give a command which takes a long time. In particular,
it is safe to quit out of killing; either your text will ALL still be
there, or it will ALL be in the kill ring (or maybe both). Quitting
an incremental search does special things documented under searching; in
general, it may take two successive `C-g' characters to get out of a
search. `C-g' works by setting the variable `quit-flag' to
`t' the instant `C-g' is typed; Emacs Lisp checks this variable
frequently and quits if it is non-`nil'. `C-g' is only actually
executed as a command if it is typed while Emacs is waiting for input.

If you quit twice in a row before the first `C-g' is recognized, you
activate the "emergency escape" feature and return to the shell.
*Note Emergency Escape::.

Aborting with `C-]' (`abort-recursive-edit') is used to get out
of a recursive editing level and cancel the command which invoked it.
Quitting with `C-g' does not do this, and could not do this, because it
is used to cancel a partially typed command within the recursive
editing level. Both operations are useful. For example, if you are in the
Emacs debugger (*Note Lisp Debug::) and have typed `C-u 8' to enter a
numeric argument, you can cancel that argument with `C-g' and remain in
the debugger.

The command `M-x top-level' is equivalent to "enough" `C-]'
commands to get you out of all the levels of recursive edits that you are
in. `C-]' gets you out one level at a time, but `M-x top-level'
goes out all levels at once. Both `C-]' and `M-x top-level' are
like all other commands, and unlike `C-g', in that they are effective
only when Emacs is ready for a command. `C-]' is an ordinary key and
has its meaning only because of its binding in the keymap.
*Note Recursive Edit::.

`C-x u' (`undo') is not strictly speaking a way of cancelling a
command, but you can think of it as cancelling a command already finished
executing. *Note Undo::.

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File: emacs Node: Lossage, Prev: Quitting, Up: Top, Next: Bugs

Dealing with Emacs Trouble
==========================

This section describes various conditions in which Emacs fails to work,
and how to recognize them and correct them.

* Menu:

* Stuck Recursive:: `[...]' in mode line around the parentheses
* Screen Garbled:: Garbage on the screen
* Text Garbled:: Garbage in the text
* Unasked-for Search:: Spontaneous entry to incremental search
* Emergency Escape:: Emergency escape---
What to do if Emacs stops responding
* Total Frustration:: When you are at your wits' end.

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File: emacs Node: Stuck Recursive, Prev: Lossage, Up: Lossage, Next: Screen Garbled

Recursive Editing Levels
------------------------

Recursive editing levels are important and useful features of Emacs, but
they can seem like malfunctions to the user who does not understand them.

If the mode line has square brackets `[...]' around the parentheses
that contain the names of the major and minor modes, you have entered a
recursive editing level. If you did not do this on purpose, or if you
don't understand what that means, you should just get out of the recursive
editing level. To do so, type `M-x top-level'. This is called getting
back to top level. *Note Recursive Edit::.

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File: emacs Node: Screen Garbled, Prev: Stuck Recursive, Up: Lossage, Next: Text Garbled

Garbage on the Screen
---------------------

If the data on the screen looks wrong, the first thing to do is see
whether the text is really wrong. Type `C-l', to redisplay the entire
screen. If it appears correct after this, the problem was entirely in the
previous screen update.

Display updating problems often result from an incorrect termcap entry
for the terminal you are using. The file `etc/TERMS' in the Emacs
distribution gives the fixes for known problems of this sort.
`INSTALL' contains general advice for these problems in one of its
sections. Very likely there is simply insufficient padding for certain
display operations. To investigate the possibility that you have this sort
of problem, try Emacs on another terminal made by a different manufacturer.
If problems happen frequently on one kind of terminal but not another kind,
it is likely to be a bad termcap entry, though it could also be due to a
bug in Emacs that appears for terminals that have or that lack specific
features.

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File: emacs Node: Text Garbled, Prev: Screen Garbled, Up: Lossage, Next: Unasked-for Search

Garbage in the Text
-------------------

If `C-l' shows that the text is wrong, try undoing the changes to it
using `C-x u' until it gets back to a state you consider correct. Also
try `C-h l' to find out what command you typed to produce the observed
results.

If a large portion of text appears to be missing at the beginning or
end of the buffer, check for the word `Narrow' in the mode line.
If it appears, the text is still present, but marked off-limits.
To make it visible again, type `C-x w'. *Note Narrowing::.

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File: emacs Node: Unasked-for Search, Prev: Text Garbled, Up: Lossage, Next: Emergency Escape

Spontaneous Entry to Incremental Search
---------------------------------------

If Emacs spontaneously displays `I-search:' at the bottom of the
screen, it means that the terminal is sending `C-s' and `C-q'
according to the poorly designed xon/xoff "flow control" protocol. You
should try to prevent this by putting the terminal in a mode where it will
not use flow control or giving it enough padding that it will never send a
`C-s'. If that cannot be done, you must tell Emacs to expect flow
control to be used, until you can get a properly designed terminal.

Information on how to do these things can be found in the file
`INSTALL' in the Emacs distribution.

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File: emacs Node: Emergency Escape, Prev: Unasked-for Search, Up: Lossage, Next: Total Frustration

Emergency Escape
----------------

Because at times there have been bugs causing Emacs to loop without
checking `quit-flag', a special feature causes Emacs to be suspended
immediately if you type a second `C-g' while the flag is already set,
so you can always get out of GNU Emacs. Normally Emacs recognizes and
clears `quit-flag' (and quits!) quickly enough to prevent this from
happening.

When you resume Emacs after a suspension caused by multiple `C-g', it
asks two questions before going back to what it had been doing:

Auto-save? (y or n)
Abort (and dump core)? (y or n)

Answer each one with `y' or `n' followed by RET.

Saying `y' to `Auto-save?' causes immediate auto-saving of all
modified buffers in which auto-saving is enabled.

Saying `y' to `Abort (and dump core)?' causes an illegal instruction to be
executed, dumping core. This is to enable a wizard to figure out why Emacs
was failing to quit in the first place. Execution does not continue
after a core dump. If you answer `n', execution does continue. With
luck, GNU Emacs will ultimately check `quit-flag' and quit normally.
If not, and you type another `C-g', it is suspended again.

If Emacs is not really hung, just slow, you may invoke the double
`C-g' feature without really meaning to. Then just resume and answer
`n' to both questions, and you will arrive at your former state.
Presumably the quit you requested will happen soon.

The double-`C-g' feature may be turned off when Emacs is running under
a window system, since the window system always enables you to kill Emacs
or to create another window and run another program.

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File: emacs Node: Total Frustration, Prev: Emergency Escape, Up: Lossage

Help for Total Frustration
--------------------------

If using Emacs (or something else) becomes terribly frustrating and none
of the techniques described above solve the problem, Emacs can still help
you.

First, if the Emacs you are using is not responding to commands, type
`C-g C-g' to get out of it and then start a new one.

Second, type `M-x doctor RET'.

The doctor will make you feel better. Each time you say something to
the doctor, you must end it by typing RET RET. This lets the
doctor know you are finished.

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File: emacs Node: Bugs, Prev: Lossage, Up: Top, Next: Manifesto

Reporting Bugs
==============

Sometimes you will encounter a bug in Emacs. Although we cannot promise
we can or will fix the bug, and we might not even agree that it is a bug,
we want to hear about bugs you encounter in case we do want to fix them.

To make it possible for us to fix a bug, you must report it. In order
to do so effectively, you must know when and how to do it.

When Is There a Bug
-------------------

If Emacs executes an illegal instruction, or dies with an operating
system error message that indicates a problem in the program (as opposed to
something like "disk full"), then it is certainly a bug.

If Emacs updates the display in a way that does not correspond to what is
in the buffer, then it is certainly a bug. If a command seems to do the
wrong thing but the problem corrects itself if you type `C-l', it is a
case of incorrect display updating.

Taking forever to complete a command can be a bug, but you must make
certain that it was really Emacs's fault. Some commands simply take a long
time. Type `C-g' and then `C-h l' to see whether the input Emacs
received was what you intended to type; if the input was such that you
KNOW it should have been processed quickly, report a bug. If you
don't know whether the command should take a long time, find out by looking
in the manual or by asking for assistance.

If a command you are familiar with causes an Emacs error message in a
case where its usual definition ought to be reasonable, it is probably a
bug.

If a command does the wrong thing, that is a bug. But be sure you know
for certain what it ought to have done. If you aren't familiar with the
command, or don't know for certain how the command is supposed to work,
then it might actually be working right. Rather than jumping to
conclusions, show the problem to someone who knows for certain.

Finally, a command's intended definition may not be best for editing
with. This is a very important sort of problem, but it is also a matter of
judgment. Also, it is easy to come to such a conclusion out of ignorance
of some of the existing features. It is probably best not to complain
about such a problem until you have checked the documentation in the usual
ways, feel confident that you understand it, and know for certain that what
you want is not available. If you are not sure what the command is
supposed to do after a careful reading of the manual, check the index and
glossary for any terms that may be unclear. If you still do not
understand, this indicates a bug in the manual. The manual's job is to
make everything clear. It is just as important to report documentation
bugs as program bugs.

If the on-line documentation string of a function or variable disagrees
with the manual, one of them must be wrong, so report the bug.

How to Report a Bug
-------------------

When you decide that there is a bug, it is important to report it and to
report it in a way which is useful. What is most useful is an exact
description of what commands you type, starting with the shell command to
run Emacs, until the problem happens. Always include the version number
of Emacs that you are using; type `M-x emacs-version' to print this.

The most important principle in reporting a bug is to report FACTS,
not hypotheses or categorizations. It is always easier to report the facts,
but people seem to prefer to strain to posit explanations and report
them instead. If the explanations are based on guesses about how Emacs is
implemented, they will be useless; we will have to try to figure out what
the facts must have been to lead to such speculations. Sometimes this is
impossible. But in any case, it is unnecessary work for us.

For example, suppose that you type `C-x C-f /glorp/baz.ugh
RET', visiting a file which (you know) happens to be rather large,
and Emacs prints out `I feel pretty today'. The best way to report
the bug is with a sentence like the preceding one, because it gives all the
facts and nothing but the facts.

Do not assume that the problem is due to the size of the file and say,
"When I visit a large file, Emacs prints out `I feel pretty today'."
This is what we mean by "guessing explanations". The problem is just as
likely to be due to the fact that there is a `z' in the file name. If
this is so, then when we got your report, we would try out the problem with
some "large file", probably with no `z' in its name, and not find
anything wrong. There is no way in the world that we could guess that we
should try visiting a file with a `z' in its name.

Alternatively, the problem might be due to the fact that the file starts
with exactly 25 spaces. For this reason, you should make sure that you
inform us of the exact contents of any file that is needed to reproduce the
bug. What if the problem only occurs when you have typed the `C-x C-a'
command previously? This is why we ask you to give the exact sequence of
characters you typed since starting to use Emacs.

You should not even say "visit a file" instead of `C-x C-f' unless you
know that it makes no difference which visiting command is used.
Similarly, rather than saying "if I have three characters on the line," say
"after I type `RET A B C RET C-p'," if that is the way you entered the
text.

If you are not in Fundamental mode when the problem occurs, you should
say what mode you are in.

If the manifestation of the bug is an Emacs error message, it is
important to report not just the text of the error message but a backtrace
showing how the Lisp program in Emacs arrived at the error. To make the
backtrace, you must execute the Lisp expression `(setq debug-on-error t)'
before the error happens (that is to say, you must execute that expression
and then make the bug happen). This causes the Lisp debugger to run
(*Note Lisp Debug::). The debugger's backtrace can be copied as text into
the bug report. This use of the debugger is possible only if you know how
to make the bug happen again. Do note the error message the first time the
bug happens, so if you can't make it happen again, you can report at least
that.

Check whether any programs you have loaded into the Lisp world, including
your `.emacs' file, set any variables that may affect the functioning
of Emacs. Also, see whether the problem happens in a freshly started Emacs
without loading your `.emacs' file (start Emacs with the `-q' switch
to prevent loading the init file.) If the problem does NOT occur
then, it is essential that we know the contents of any programs that you
must load into the Lisp world in order to cause the problem to occur.

If the problem does depend on an init file or other Lisp programs that
are not part of the standard Emacs system, then you should make sure it is
not a bug in those programs by complaining to their maintainers first.
After they verify that they are using Emacs in a way that is supposed to
work, they should report the bug.

If you can tell us a way to cause the problem without visiting any files,
please do so. This makes it much easier to debug. If you do need files,
make sure you arrange for us to see their exact contents. For example, it
can often matter whether there are spaces at the ends of lines, or a
newline after the last line in the buffer (nothing ought to care whether
the last line is terminated, but tell that to the bugs).

The easy way to record the input to Emacs precisely is to to write a
dribble file; execute the Lisp expression

(open-dribble-file "~/dribble")

using `Meta-ESC' or from the `*scratch*' buffer just after starting
Emacs. From then on, all Emacs input will be written in the specified
dribble file until the Emacs process is killed.

For possible display bugs, it is important to report the terminal type
(the value of environment variable `TERM'), the complete termcap entry
for the terminal from `/etc/termcap' (since that file is not identical
on all machines), and the output that Emacs actually sent to the terminal.
The way to collect this output is to execute the Lisp expression

(open-termscript "~/termscript")

using `Meta-ESC' or from the `*scratch*' buffer just after starting Emacs.
From then on, all output from Emacs to the terminal will be written in the
specified termscript file as well, until the Emacs process is killed. If
the problem happens when Emacs starts up, put this expression into your
`.emacs' file so that the termscript file will be open when Emacs displays
the screen for the first time. Be warned: it is often difficult, and
sometimes impossible, to fix a terminal-dependent bug without access to a
terminal of the type that stimulates the bug.

The address for reporting bugs is

GNU Emacs Bugs
545 Tech Sq, rm 703
Cambridge, MA 02139

or send computer mail to `mit-eddie!bug-gnu-emacs' (Usenet) or
`bug-gnu-emacs@prep.ai.mit.edu' (Internet).

Once again, we do not promise to fix the bug; but if the bug is serious,
or ugly, or easy to fix, chances are we will want to.

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File: emacs Node: Manifesto, Prev: Bugs, Up: Top

The GNU Manifesto
*****************

What's GNU? Gnu's Not Unix!
============================

GNU, which stands for Gnu's Not Unix, is the name for the complete
Unix-compatible software system which I am writing so that I can give it
away free to everyone who can use it. Several other volunteers are helping
me. Contributions of time, money, programs and equipment are greatly
needed.

So far we have an Emacs text editor with Lisp for writing editor commands,
a source level debugger, a yacc-compatible parser generator, a linker, and
around 35 utilities. A shell (command interpreter) is nearly completed. A
new portable optimizing C compiler has compiled itself and may be released
this year. An initial kernel exists but many more features are needed to
emulate Unix. When the kernel and compiler are finished, it will be
possible to distribute a GNU system suitable for program development. We
will use TeX as our text formatter, but an nroff is being worked on. We
will use the free, portable X window system as well. After this we will
add a portable Common Lisp, an Empire game, a spreadsheet, and hundreds of
other things, plus on-line documentation. We hope to supply, eventually,
everything useful that normally comes with a Unix system, and more.

GNU will be able to run Unix programs, but will not be identical to Unix.
We will make all improvements that are convenient, based on our experience
with other operating systems. In particular, we plan to have longer
filenames, file version numbers, a crashproof file system, filename
completion perhaps, terminal-independent display support, and perhaps
eventually a Lisp-based window system through which several Lisp programs
and ordinary Unix programs can share a screen. Both C and Lisp will be
available as system programming languages. We will try to support UUCP,
MIT Chaosnet, and Internet protocols for communication.

GNU is aimed initially at machines in the 68000/16000 class with virtual
memory, because they are the easiest machines to make it run on. The extra
effort to make it run on smaller machines will be left to someone who wants
to use it on them.

To avoid horrible confusion, please pronounce the `G' in the word `GNU'
when it is the name of this project.

Why I Must Write GNU
====================

I consider that the golden rule requires that if I like a program I must
share it with other people who like it. Software sellers want to divide
the users and conquer them, making each user agree not to share with
others. I refuse to break solidarity with other users in this way. I
cannot in good conscience sign a nondisclosure agreement or a software
license agreement. For years I worked within the Artificial Intelligence
Lab to resist such tendencies and other inhospitalities, but eventually
they had gone too far: I could not remain in an institution where such
things are done for me against my will.

So that I can continue to use computers without dishonor, I have decided to
put together a sufficient body of free software so that I will be able to
get along without any software that is not free. I have resigned from the
AI lab to deny MIT any legal excuse to prevent me from giving GNU away.

Why GNU Will Be Compatible with Unix
====================================

Unix is not my ideal system, but it is not too bad. The essential features
of Unix seem to be good ones, and I think I can fill in what Unix lacks
without spoiling them. And a system compatible with Unix would be
convenient for many other people to adopt.

How GNU Will Be Available
=========================

GNU is not in the public domain. Everyone will be permitted to modify and
redistribute GNU, but no distributor will be allowed to restrict its
further redistribution. That is to say, proprietary modifications will not
be allowed. I want to make sure that all versions of GNU remain free.

Why Many Other Programmers Want to Help
=======================================

I have found many other programmers who are excited about GNU and want to
help.

Many programmers are unhappy about the commercialization of system
software. It may enable them to make more money, but it requires them to
feel in conflict with other programmers in general rather than feel as
comrades. The fundamental act of friendship among programmers is the
sharing of programs; marketing arrangements now typically used essentially
forbid programmers to treat others as friends. The purchaser of software
must choose between friendship and obeying the law. Naturally, many decide
that friendship is more important. But those who believe in law often do
not feel at ease with either choice. They become cynical and think that
programming is just a way of making money.

By working on and using GNU rather than proprietary programs, we can be
hospitable to everyone and obey the law. In addition, GNU serves as an
example to inspire and a banner to rally others to join us in sharing.
This can give us a feeling of harmony which is impossible if we use
software that is not free. For about half the programmers I talk to, this
is an important happiness that money cannot replace.

How You Can Contribute
======================

I am asking computer manufacturers for donations of machines and money.
I'm asking individuals for donations of programs and work.

One consequence you can expect if you donate machines is that GNU will run
on them at an early date. The machines should be complete, ready to use
systems, approved for use in a residential area, and not in need of
sophisticated cooling or power.

I have found very many programmers eager to contribute part-time work for
GNU. For most projects, such part-time distributed work would be very hard
to coordinate; the independently-written parts would not work together.
But for the particular task of replacing Unix, this problem is absent. A
complete Unix system contains hundreds of utility programs, each of which
is documented separately. Most interface specifications are fixed by Unix
compatibility. If each contributor can write a compatible replacement for
a single Unix utility, and make it work properly in place of the original
on a Unix system, then these utilities will work right when put together.
Even allowing for Murphy to create a few unexpected problems, assembling
these components will be a feasible task. (The kernel will require closer
communication and will be worked on by a small, tight group.)

If I get donations of money, I may be able to hire a few people full or
part time. The salary won't be high by programmers' standards, but I'm
looking for people for whom building community spirit is as important as
making money. I view this as a way of enabling dedicated people to devote
their full energies to working on GNU by sparing them the need to make a
living in another way.

Why All Computer Users Will Benefit
===================================

Once GNU is written, everyone will be able to obtain good system software
free, just like air.

This means much more than just saving everyone the price of a Unix license.
It means that much wasteful duplication of system programming effort will
be avoided. This effort can go instead into advancing the state of the
art.

Complete system sources will be available to everyone. As a result, a user
who needs changes in the system will always be free to make them himself,
or hire any available programmer or company to make them for him. Users
will no longer be at the mercy of one programmer or company which owns the
sources and is in sole position to make changes.

Schools will be able to provide a much more educational environment by
encouraging all students to study and improve the system code. Harvard's
computer lab used to have the policy that no program could be installed on
the system if its sources were not on public display, and upheld it by
actually refusing to install certain programs. I was very much inspired by
this.

Finally, the overhead of considering who owns the system software and what
one is or is not entitled to do with it will be lifted.

Arrangements to make people pay for using a program, including licensing of
copies, always incur a tremendous cost to society through the cumbersome
mechanisms necessary to figure out how much (that is, which programs) a
person must pay for. And only a police state can force everyone to obey
them. Consider a space station where air must be manufactured at great
cost: charging each breather per liter of air may be fair, but wearing the
metered gas mask all day and all night is intolerable even if everyone can
afford to pay the air bill. And the TV cameras everywhere to see if you
ever take the mask off are outrageous. It's better to support the air
plant with a head tax and chuck the masks.

Copying all or parts of a program is as natural to a programmer as
breathing, and as productive. It ought to be as free.

Some Easily Rebutted Objections to GNU's Goals
==============================================

"Nobody will use it if it is free, because that means they can't rely
on any support."

"You have to charge for the program to pay for providing the
support."

If people would rather pay for GNU plus service than get GNU free without
service, a company to provide just service to people who have obtained GNU
free ought to be profitable.

We must distinguish between support in the form of real programming work
and mere handholding. The former is something one cannot rely on from a
software vendor. If your problem is not shared by enough people, the
vendor will tell you to get lost.

If your business needs to be able to rely on support, the only way is to
have all the necessary sources and tools. Then you can hire any available
person to fix your problem; you are not at the mercy of any individual.
With Unix, the price of sources puts this out of consideration for most
businesses. With GNU this will be easy. It is still possible for there to
be no available competent person, but this problem cannot be blamed on
distibution arrangements. GNU does not eliminate all the world's problems,
only some of them.

Meanwhile, the users who know nothing about computers need handholding:
doing things for them which they could easily do themselves but don't know
how.

Such services could be provided by companies that sell just hand-holding
and repair service. If it is true that users would rather spend money and
get a product with service, they will also be willing to buy the service
having got the product free. The service companies will compete in quality
and price; users will not be tied to any particular one. Meanwhile, those
of us who don't need the service should be able to use the program without
paying for the service.

"You cannot reach many people without advertising,
and you must charge for the program to support that."

"It's no use advertising a program people can get free."

There are various forms of free or very cheap publicity that can be used to
inform numbers of computer users about something like GNU. But it may be
true that one can reach more microcomputer users with advertising. If this
is really so, a business which advertises the service of copying and
mailing GNU for a fee ought to be successful enough to pay for its
advertising and more. This way, only the users who benefit from the
advertising pay for it.

On the other hand, if many people get GNU from their friends, and such
companies don't succeed, this will show that advertising was not really
necessary to spread GNU. Why is it that free market advocates don't want
to let the free market decide this?

"My company needs a proprietary operating system
to get a competitive edge."

GNU will remove operating system software from the realm of competition.
You will not be able to get an edge in this area, but neither will your
competitors be able to get an edge over you. You and they will compete in
other areas, while benefitting mutually in this one. If your business is
selling an operating system, you will not like GNU, but that's tough on
you. If your business is something else, GNU can save you from being
pushed into the expensive business of selling operating systems.

I would like to see GNU development supported by gifts from many
manufacturers and users, reducing the cost to each.

"Don't programmers deserve a reward for their creativity?"

If anything deserves a reward, it is social contribution. Creativity can
be a social contribution, but only in so far as society is free to use the
results. If programmers deserve to be rewarded for creating innovative
programs, by the same token they deserve to be punished if they restrict
the use of these programs.

"Shouldn't a programmer be able to ask for a reward for his creativity?"

There is nothing wrong with wanting pay for work, or seeking to maximize
one's income, as long as one does not use means that are destructive. But
the means customary in the field of software today are based on
destruction.

Extracting money from users of a program by restricting their use of it is
destructive because the restrictions reduce the amount and the ways that
the program can be used. This reduces the amount of wealth that humanity
derives from the program. When there is a deliberate choice to restrict,
the harmful consequences are deliberate destruction.

The reason a good citizen does not use such destructive means to become
wealthier is that, if everyone did so, we would all become poorer from the
mutual destructiveness. This is Kantian ethics; or, the Golden Rule.
Since I do not like the consequences that result if everyone hoards
information, I am required to consider it wrong for one to do so.
Specifically, the desire to be rewarded for one's creativity does not
justify depriving the world in general of all or part of that creativity.

"Won't programmers starve?"

I could answer that nobody is forced to be a programmer. Most of us cannot
manage to get any money for standing on the street and making faces. But
we are not, as a result, condemned to spend our lives standing on the
street making faces, and starving. We do something else.

But that is the wrong answer because it accepts the questioner's implicit
assumption: that without ownership of software, programmers cannot possibly
be paid a cent. Supposedly it is all or nothing.

The real reason programmers will not starve is that it will still be
possible for them to get paid for programming; just not paid as much as
now.

Restricting copying is not the only basis for business in software. It is
the most common basis because it brings in the most money. If it were
prohibited, or rejected by the customer, software business would move to
other bases of organization which are now used less often. There are
always numerous ways to organize any kind of business.

Probably programming will not be as lucrative on the new basis as it is
now. But that is not an argument against the change. It is not considered
an injustice that sales clerks make the salaries that they now do. If
programmers made the same, that would not be an injustice either. (In
practice they would still make considerably more than that.)

"Don't people have a right to control how their creativity is used?"

"Control over the use of one's ideas" really constitutes control over
other people's lives; and it is usually used to make their lives more
difficult.

People who have studied the issue of intellectual property rights carefully
(such as lawyers) say that there is no intrinsic right to intellectual
property. The kinds of supposed intellectual property rights that the
government recognizes were created by specific acts of legislation for
specific purposes.

For example, the patent system was established to encourage inventors to
disclose the details of their inventions. Its purpose was to help society
rather than to help inventors. At the time, the life span of 17 years for
a patent was short compared with the rate of advance of the state of the
art. Since patents are an issue only among manufacturers, for whom the
cost and effort of a license agreement are small compared with setting up
production, the patents often do not do much harm. They do not obstruct
most individuals who use patented products.

The idea of copyright did not exist in ancient times, when authors
frequently copied other authors at length in works of non-fiction. This
practice was useful, and is the only way many authors' works have survived
even in part. The copyright system was created expressly for the purpose
of encouraging authorship. In the domain for which it was
invented---books, which could be copied economically only on a printing
press---it did little harm, and did not obstruct most of the individuals
who read the books.

All intellectual property rights are just licenses granted by society
because it was thought, rightly or wrongly, that society as a whole would
benefit by granting them. But in any particular situation, we have to ask:
are we really better off granting such license? What kind of act are we
licensing a person to do?

The case of programs today is very different from that of books a hundred
years ago. The fact that the easiest way to copy a program is from one
neighbor to another, the fact that a program has both source code and
object code which are distinct, and the fact that a program is used rather
than read and enjoyed, combine to create a situation in which a person who
enforces a copyright is harming society as a whole both materially and
spiritually; in which a person should not do so regardless of whether the
law enables him to.

"Competition makes things get done better."

The paradigm of competition is a race: by rewarding the winner, we
encourage everyone to run faster. When capitalism really works this way,
it does a good job; but its defenders are wrong in assuming it always works
this way. If the runners forget why the reward is offered and become
intent on winning, no matter how, they may find other strategies---such as,
attacking other runners. If the runners get into a fist fight, they will
all finish late.

Proprietary and secret software is the moral equivalent of runners in a
fist fight. Sad to say, the only referee we've got does not seem to
object to fights; he just regulates them ("For every ten yards you run,
you can fire one shot"). He really ought to break them up, and penalize
runners for even trying to fight.

"Won't everyone stop programming without a monetary incentive?"

Actually, many people will program with absolutely no monetary incentive.
Programming has an irresistible fascination for some people, usually the
people who are best at it. There is no shortage of professional musicians
who keep at it even though they have no hope of making a living that way.

But really this question, though commonly asked, is not appropriate to the
situation. Pay for programmers will not disappear, only become less. So
the right question is, will anyone program with a reduced monetary
incentive? My experience shows that they will.

For more than ten years, many of the world's best programmers worked at the
Artificial Intelligence Lab for far less money than they could have had
anywhere else. They got many kinds of non-monetary rewards: fame and
appreciation, for example. And creativity is also fun, a reward in itself.

Then most of them left when offered a chance to do the same interesting
work for a lot of money.

What the facts show is that people will program for reasons other than
riches; but if given a chance to make a lot of money as well, they will
come to expect and demand it. Low-paying organizations do poorly in
competition with high-paying ones, but they do not have to do badly if the
high-paying ones are banned.

"We need the programmers desperately. If they demand that we
stop helping our neighbors, we have to obey."

You're never so desperate that you have to obey this sort of demand.
Remember: millions for defense, but not a cent for tribute!

"Programmers need to make a living somehow."

In the short run, this is true. However, there are plenty of ways that
programmers could make a living without selling the right to use a program.
This way is customary now because it brings programmers and businessmen the
most money, not because it is the only way to make a living. It is easy to
find other ways if you want to find them. Here are a number of examples.

A manufacturer introducing a new computer will pay for the porting of
operating systems onto the new hardware.

The sale of teaching, hand-holding and maintenance services could also
employ programmers.

People with new ideas could distribute programs as freeware, asking for
donations from satisfied users, or selling hand-holding services. I have
met people who are already working this way successfully.

Users with related needs can form users' groups, and pay dues. A group
would contract with programming companies to write programs that the
group's members would like to use.

All sorts of development can be funded with a Software Tax:

Suppose everyone who buys a computer has to pay x percent of
the price as a software tax. The government gives this to
an agency like the NSF to spend on software development.

But if the computer buyer makes a donation to software development
himself, he can take a credit against the tax. He can donate to
the project of his own choosing---often, chosen because he hopes to
use the results when it is done. He can take a credit for any amount
of donation up to the total tax he had to pay.

The total tax rate could be decided by a vote of the payers of
the tax, weighted according to the amount they will be taxed on.

The consequences:

* The computer-using community supports software development.
* This community decides what level of support is needed.
* Users who care which projects their share is spent on
can choose this for themselves.

In the long run, making programs free is a step toward the post-scarcity
world, where nobody will have to work very hard just to make a living.
People will be free to devote themselves to activities that are fun, such
as programming, after spending the necessary ten hours a week on required
tasks such as legislation, family counseling, robot repair and asteroid
prospecting. There will be no need to be able to make a living from
programming.

We have already greatly reduced the amount of work that the whole society
must do for its actual productivity, but only a little of this has
translated itself into leisure for workers because much nonproductive
activity is required to accompany productive activity. The main causes of
this are bureaucracy and isometric struggles against competition. Free
software will greatly reduce these drains in the area of software
production. We must do this, in order for technical gains in productivity
to translate into less work for us.

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