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                            2. Lexical Elements



The  text  of  a program consists of the texts of one or more compilations.
The text of a compilation is a sequence of lexical elements, each  composed
of  characters;   the  rules  of  composition  are  given  in this chapter.
Pragmas, which provide certain  information  for  the  compiler,  are  also
described in this chapter.

References:   character  2.1, compilation 10.1, lexical element 2.2, pragma
2.8




2.1  Character Set


The only  characters allowed in the text  of  a  program  are  the  graphic
characters  and  format effectors.  Each graphic character corresponds to a
unique code of the ISO seven-bit coded character set  (ISO  standard  646),
and  is  represented  (visually)  by  a  graphical  symbol.   Some  graphic
characters are represented by different graphical  symbols  in  alternative
national  representations of the ISO character set.  The description of the
language definition in  this  standard  reference  manual  uses  the  ASCII
graphical  symbols,  the ANSI graphical representation of the ISO character
set.

    graphic_character ::= basic_graphic_character
       | lower_case_letter | other_special_character

    basic_graphic_character ::=
         upper_case_letter | digit
       | special_character | space_character

    basic_character ::=
         basic_graphic_character | format_effector

The basic character  set  is  sufficient  for  writing  any  program.   The
characters  included  in each of the categories of basic graphic characters
are defined as follows:

(a)  upper case letters
     A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

(b)  digits
     0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9




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(c)  special characters
     " # & ' ( ) * + , - . / : ; < = > _ |

(d)  the space character

Format effectors are the  ISO  (and  ASCII)  characters  called  horizontal
tabulation, vertical tabulation, carriage return, line feed, and form feed.


















































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The  characters  included  in  each  of the remaining categories of graphic
characters are defined as follows:

(e)  lower case letters
     a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z

(f)  other special characters
     ! $ % ? @ [ \ ] ^ ` { }

Allowable replacements for the special characters vertical bar  (|),  sharp
(#), and quotation (") are defined in section 2.10.

Notes:

The  ISO  character  that  corresponds to the sharp graphical symbol in the
ASCII representation appears as a pound  sterling  symbol  in  the  French,
German, and United Kingdom standard national representations.  In any case,
the  font  design  of  graphical  symbols (for example, whether they are in
italic or bold typeface) is not part of the ISO standard.

The meanings of the acronyms used in this section  are  as  follows:   ANSI
stands for American National Standards Institute, ASCII stands for American
Standard Code for Information Interchange, and ISO stands for International
Organization for Standardization.

The following names are used when referring to special characters and other
special characters:

    symbol     name                        symbol     name

      "        quotation                     >        greater than
      #        sharp                         _        underline
      &        ampersand                     |        vertical bar
      '        apostrophe                    !        exclamation mark
      (        left parenthesis              $        dollar
      )        right parenthesis             %        percent
      *        star, multiply                ?        question mark
      +        plus                          @        commercial at
      ,        comma                         [        left square bracket
      -        hyphen, minus                 \        back-slash
      .        dot, point, period            ]        right square bracket
      /        slash, divide                 ^        circumflex
      :        colon                         `        grave accent
      ;        semicolon                     {        left brace
      <        less than                     }        right brace
      =        equal                         `     tilde




2.2  Lexical Elements, Separators, and Delimiters


The  text  of  a program consists of the texts of one or more compilations.
The text of each compilation is a sequence of  separate  lexical  elements.


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Each  lexical  element is either a delimiter, an identifier (which may be a
reserved word), a numeric literal, a character literal, a  string  literal,
or  a  comment.   The  effect  of  a program depends only on the particular
sequences of lexical elements that form  its  compilations,  excluding  the
comments, if any.




















































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In  some  cases  an  explicit  separator  is  required to separate adjacent
lexical elements (namely, when  without  separation,  interpretation  as  a
single  lexical  element  is  possible).   A  separator  is  any of a space
character, a format effector, or the end of a line.  A space character is a
separator except within a comment, a string literal, or a  space  character
literal.   Format  effectors  other  than  horizontal tabulation are always
separators.  Horizontal tabulation is a separator except within a  comment.

The end of a line is always a separator.  The language does not define what
causes  the end of a line.  However if, for a given implementation, the end
of a line is signified by one or more  characters,  then  these  characters
must  be format effectors other than horizontal tabulation.  In any case, a
sequence of one or more format effectors other than  horizontal  tabulation
must cause at least one end of line.

One  or  more  separators  are  allowed  between  any  two adjacent lexical
elements, before the first of each compilation,  or  after  the  last.   At
least  one separator is required between an identifier or a numeric literal
and an adjacent identifier or numeric literal.

A delimiter is either one of the following special characters (in the basic
character set)

    & ' ( ) * + , - . / : ; < = > |

or one of the following compound delimiters each composed of  two  adjacent
special characters

    =>   ..   **   :=   /=   >=   <=   <<   >>   <>

Each  of the special characters listed for single character delimiters is a
single delimiter except if this character is  used  as  a  character  of  a
compound  delimiter,  or  as  a  character  of  a  comment, string literal,
character literal, or numeric literal.

The remaining forms of lexical element are described in other  sections  of
this chapter.

Notes:

Each  lexical  element  must  fit on one line, since the end of a line is a
separator.  The quotation, sharp, and underline  characters,  likewise  two
adjacent  hyphens,  are  not delimiters, but may form part of other lexical
elements.

The following names are used when referring to compound delimiters:

    delimiter     name

       =>         arrow
       ..         double dot
       **         double star, exponentiate
       :=         assignment (pronounced: "becomes")
       /=         inequality (pronounced: "not equal")
       >=         greater than or equal


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       <=         less than or equal
       <<         left label bracket
       >>         right label bracket
       <>         box

References:  character literal 2.5, comment 2.7, compilation  10.1,  format
effector 2.1, identifier 2.3, numeric literal 2.4, reserved word 2.9, space
character 2.1, special character 2.1, string literal 2.6

















































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2.3  Identifiers


Identifiers are used as names and also as reserved words.

    identifier ::=
       letter {[underline] letter_or_digit}

    letter_or_digit ::= letter | digit

    letter ::= upper_case_letter | lower_case_letter

All  characters  of  an identifier are significant, including any underline
character inserted between a letter or digit  and  an  adjacent  letter  or
digit.   Identifiers  differing  only in the use of corresponding upper and
lower case letters are considered as the same.

Examples:

    COUNT      X    get_symbol   Ethelyn   Marion

    SNOBOL_4   X1   PageCount    STORE_NEXT_ITEM

Note:

No space is allowed within an identifier since a space is a separator.

References:  digit 2.1, lower case letter 2.1, name 4.1, reserved word 2.9,
separator 2.2, space character 2.1, upper case letter 2.1




2.4  Numeric Literals


There are two classes of  numeric  literals:   real  literals  and  integer
literals.   A  real literal is a numeric literal that includes a point;  an
integer literal is a numeric literal without a point.   Real  literals  are
the literals of the type universal_real.  Integer literals are the literals
of the type universal_integer.

    numeric_literal ::= decimal_literal | based_literal


References:  literal 4.2, universal_integer type 3.5.4, universal_real type
3.5.6




2.4.1  Decimal Literals





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A  decimal  literal  is  a  numeric  literal  expressed in the conventional
decimal notation (that is, the base is implicitly ten).

    decimal_literal ::= integer [.integer] [exponent]

    integer  ::= digit {[underline] digit}

    exponent ::= E [+] integer | E - integer

















































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An underline character  inserted  between  adjacent  digits  of  a  decimal
literal does not affect the value of this numeric literal.  The letter E of
the exponent, if any, can be written either in lower case or in upper case,
with the same meaning.

An  exponent  indicates  the power of ten by which the value of the decimal
literal without the exponent is to be multiplied to obtain the value of the
decimal literal with the exponent.  An exponent for an integer literal must
not have a minus sign.

Examples:

    12        0      1E6    123_456     --  integer literals

    12.0      0.0    0.456  3.14159_26  --  real literals

    1.34E-12  1.0E+6  --  real literals with exponent


Notes:

Leading zeros are allowed.  No space is allowed in a numeric  literal,  not
even between constituents of the exponent, since a space is a separator.  A
zero exponent is allowed for an integer literal.

References:   digit  2.1,  lower  case  letter  2.1,  numeric  literal 2.4,
separator 2.2, space character 2.1, upper case letter 2.1




2.4.2  Based Literals


A based literal is a numeric literal expressed in a form that specifies the
base explicitly.  The base must be at least two and at most sixteen.

    based_literal ::=
       base # based_integer [.based_integer] # [exponent]

    base ::= integer

    based_integer ::=
       extended_digit {[underline] extended_digit}

    extended_digit ::= digit | letter

An underline character inserted between adjacent digits of a based  literal
does  not  affect  the  value  of  this  numeric literal.  The base and the
exponent, if any, are in decimal notation.  The  only  letters  allowed  as
extended  digits  are  the  letters  A through F for the digits ten through
fifteen.  A letter in a based literal (either  an  extended  digit  or  the
letter  E  of  an exponent) can be written either in lower case or in upper
case, with the same meaning.



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The conventional meaning of based notation is assumed;  in  particular  the
value of each extended digit of a based literal must be less than the base.
An exponent indicates the power of the base by which the value of the based
literal without the exponent is to be multiplied to obtain the value of the
based literal with the exponent.




















































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Examples:

    2#1111_1111#     16#FF#        016#0FF#    --  integer literals of value 255
    16#E#E1          2#1110_0000#              --  integer literals of value 224
    16#F.FF#E+2      2#1.1111_1111_111#E11     --  real literals of value 4095.0

References:   digit 2.1, exponent 2.4.1, letter 2.3, lower case letter 2.1,
numeric literal 2.4, upper case letter 2.1




2.5  Character Literals


A character  literal   is  formed  by  enclosing  one  of  the  95  graphic
characters  (including  the  space)  between  two apostrophe characters.  A
character literal has a value that belongs to a character type.

    character_literal ::= 'graphic_character'

Examples:

    'A'   '*'   '''   ' '

References:  character type 3.5.2,  graphic  character  2.1,  literal  4.2,
space character 2.1




2.6  String Literals


A  string  literal  is formed by a sequence of graphic characters (possibly
none) enclosed between two quotation characters used as string brackets.

    string_literal ::= "{graphic_character}"

A string literal has a  value  that  is  a  sequence  of  character  values
corresponding  to  the  graphic characters of the string literal apart from
the quotation character itself.  If a quotation character value  is  to  be
represented  in  the  sequence of character values, then a pair of adjacent
quotation characters must be written at the corresponding place within  the
string  literal.   (This  means  that  a  string  literal that includes two
adjacent quotation characters is never interpreted as two  adjacent  string
literals.)

The  length  of  a  string literal is the number of character values in the
sequence represented.  (Each doubled quotation character is  counted  as  a
single character.)

Examples:




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    "Message of the day:"

    ""                     --  an empty string literal
    " "   "A"   """"       --  three string literals of length 1

    "Characters such as $, %, and } are allowed in string literals"



















































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Note:

A  string  literal  must fit on one line since it is a lexical element (see
2.2).  Longer sequences of graphic character  values  can  be  obtained  by
catenation  of string literals.  Similarly catenation of constants declared
in the package ASCII can be used to obtain sequences  of  character  values
that   include   nongraphic   character   values   (the  so-called  control
characters).  Examples of such uses of catenation are given below:

    "FIRST PART OF A SEQUENCE OF CHARACTERS " &
    "THAT CONTINUES ON THE NEXT LINE"

    "sequence that includes the" & ASCII.ACK & "control character"

References:   ascii  predefined  package  C,  catenation  operation  4.5.3,
character  value 3.5.2, constant 3.2.1, declaration 3.1, end of a line 2.2,
graphic character 2.1, lexical element 2.2




2.7  Comments


A comment starts with two adjacent hyphens and extends up to the end of the
line.  A comment can appear on any line of  a  program.   The  presence  or
absence  of  comments  has  no  influence  on whether a program is legal or
illegal.  Furthermore,  comments do not influence the effect of a  program;
their sole purpose is the enlightenment of the human reader.

Examples:

    --  the last sentence above echoes the Algol 68 report

    end;  --  processing of LINE is complete

    --  a long comment may be split onto
    --  two or more consecutive lines

    ----------------  the first two hyphens start the comment

Note:

Horizontal  tabulation  can   be used in comments, after the double hyphen,
and is equivalent to one or more spaces (see 2.2).

References:  end of a line 2.2, illegal 1.6, legal 1.6, space character 2.1




2.8  Pragmas





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A pragma is used to convey information to the compiler.   A  pragma  starts
with the reserved word pragma followed by an identifier that is the name of
the pragma.

    pragma ::=
       pragma identifier [(argument_association {, argument_association})];

    argument_association ::=
         [argument_identifier =>] name
       | [argument_identifier =>] expression















































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Pragmas are only allowed at the following places in a program:

  -  After  a  semicolon  delimiter,  but  not  within  a  formal  part  or
     discriminant part.

  -  At any place where the syntax rules allow a  construct  defined  by  a
     syntactic  category  whose  name ends with "declaration", "statement",
     "clause", or "alternative", or one of the syntactic categories variant
     and exception handler;  but not in place of such a construct.  Also at
     any place where a compilation unit would be allowed.

Additional restrictions exist for the placement of specific pragmas.

Some  pragmas  have  arguments.   Argument  associations  can   be   either
positional  or named as for parameter associations of subprogram calls (see
6.4).  Named associations are,  however,  only  possible  if  the  argument
identifiers are defined.  A name given in an argument must be either a name
visible at the place of the pragma or an identifier specific to the pragma.

The pragmas defined by the language are described in Annex B:  they must be
supported  by  every  implementation.   In  addition, an implementation may
provide implementation-defined pragmas, which must  then  be  described  in
Appendix  F.   An  implementation  is  not  allowed to define pragmas whose
presence or absence influences  the  legality  of  the  text  outside  such
pragmas.   Consequently,  the  legality of a program does not depend on the
presence or absence of implementation-defined pragmas.

A pragma that is not language-defined has no effect if  its  identifier  is
not  recognized  by  the  (current)  implementation.  Furthermore, a pragma
(whether language-defined or implementation-defined) has no effect  if  its
placement  or  its  arguments  do not correspond to what is allowed for the
pragma.  The region of text over which a pragma has an  effect  depends  on
the pragma.

Examples:

    pragma LIST(OFF);
    pragma OPTIMIZE(TIME);
    pragma INLINE(SETMASK);
    pragma SUPPRESS(RANGE_CHECK, ON => INDEX);

Note:

It  is  recommended  (but not required) that implementations issue warnings
for pragmas that are not recognized and therefore ignored.

References:  compilation unit 10.1, delimiter 2.2, discriminant part 3.7.1,
exception handler 11.2, expression 4.4, formal part  6.1,  identifier  2.3,
implementation-defined pragma F, language-defined pragma B, legal 1.6, name
4.1,  reserved word 2.9, statement 5, static expression 4.9, variant 3.7.3,
visibility 8.3

Categories ending with  "declaration"  comprise:   basic  declaration  3.1,
component   declaration  3.7,  entry  declaration  9.5,  generic  parameter
declaration 12.1


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Categories ending with "clause" comprise:  alignment clause 13.4, component
clause 13.4, context clause 10.1.1, representation clause 13.1, use  clause
8.4, with clause 10.1.1

Categories  ending  with "alternative" comprise:  accept alternative 9.7.1,
case statement alternative 5.4, delay alternative 9.7.1, select alternative
9.7.1, selective wait alternative 9.7.1, terminate alternative 9.7.1


















































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2.9  Reserved Words


The identifiers listed below are called reserved words and are reserved for
special significance in the language.  For readability of this manual,  the
reserved words appear in lower case boldface.


    abort       declare      generic    of           select
    abs         delay        goto       or           separate
    accept      delta                   others       subtype
    access      digits       if         out
    all         do           in                      task
    and                      is         package      terminate
    array                               pragma       then
    at          else                    private      type
                elsif        limited    procedure
                end          loop
    begin       entry                   raise        use
    body        exception               range
                exit         mod        record       when
                                        rem          while
                             new        renames      with
    case        for          not        return
    constant    function     null       reverse      xor

A reserved word must not be used as a declared identifier.

Notes:

Reserved  words  differing only in the use of corresponding upper and lower
case letters are considered as the same (see 2.3).  In some attributes  the
identifier  that appears after the apostrophe is identical to some reserved
word.

References:  attribute 4.1.4, declaration 3.1, identifier 2.3,  lower  case
letter 2.1, upper case letter 2.1




2.10  Allowable Replacements of Characters


The  following  replacements  are  allowed for the vertical bar, sharp, and
quotation basic characters:

  -  A vertical bar character (|) can be replaced by  an  exclamation  mark
     (!)  where used as a delimiter.

  -  The sharp characters (#) of a based literal can be replaced by  colons
     (:) provided that the replacement is done for both occurrences.

  -  The quotation characters (") used as string brackets at both ends of a
     string literal can be replaced by percent characters (%) provided that


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     the  enclosed  sequence of characters contains no quotation character,
     and provided that both string  brackets  are  replaced.   Any  percent
     character  within  the sequence of characters must then be doubled and
     each such doubled percent character is interpreted as a single percent
     character value.




















































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These replacements do not change the meaning of the program.

Notes:

It is recommended that use of the replacements for the vertical bar, sharp,
and quotation characters be restricted to  cases  where  the  corresponding
graphical symbols are not available.  Note that the vertical bar appears as
a  broken  bar  on  some equipment;  replacement is not recommended in this
case.

The rules given for identifiers and numeric literals are  such  that  lower
case  and  upper  case  letters  can  be used indifferently;  these lexical
elements can thus be written using only characters of the  basic  character
set.  If a string literal of the predefined type STRING contains characters
that  are  not  in  the basic character set, the same sequence of character
values can be obtained by catenating  string  literals  that  contain  only
characters  of  the  basic  character set with suitable character constants
declared in the predefined package ASCII.  Thus the string literal  "AB$CD"
could  be  replaced  by  "AB" & ASCII.DOLLAR & "CD".  Similarly, the string
literal "ABcd" with  lower  case  letters  could  be  replaced  by  "AB"  &
ASCII.LC_C & ASCII.LC_D.

References:   ascii  predefined  package  C,  based  literal  2.4.2,  basic
character 2.1, catenation operation 4.5.3, character value 3.5.2, delimiter
2.2, graphic character 2.1, graphical symbol 2.1, identifier  2.3,  lexical
element  2.2,  lower  case  letter 2.1, numeric literal 2.4, string bracket
2.6, string literal 2.6, upper case letter 2.1






























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